Does Sex Still Sell? Effectiveness of Reaching Audiences Using Sexualized Advertising and PR
- Elodi Bodamer
- Aug 31, 2021
- 14 min read
Research Fundamentals
Topic and Problem Statement
Topic: Does Sex Still Sell? Effectiveness of Reaching Audiences Using Sexualized Advertising and Public Relations in the Era of #MeToo
Problem Statment: In the competitive and saturated realm of advertising and public relations, brands differentiate themselves by using sex to sell their products and services, but in turn, risk offending audiences when done in a way that objectifies women and insults movements like #MeToo.
Hypothesis
Traditional sexualized advertising that objectifies or stereotypes women no longer sells, other than to discrete target audiences, but if brands create sexualized advertising and PR that does not offend or discount consumers’ current social norms around body positivity, feminism, and movements like #MeToo, then sex still sells.
Core Research Questions
How do U.S. consumers’ feminist beliefs influence their perceptions of sexualized advertising?
What gender and generational differences exist pertaining to how target audiences perceive sexual images and innuendos in advertising and public relations materials?
How can brands use sexual advertising in a way that does not offend or discount consumers’ current social concerns and movements like #MeToo?
To what extent does sexualized advertising influence consumer purchase intention both negatively and positively?
With the commoditization of the #MeToo movement, have advertisements embracing it become bland and ineffective? In contrast, can sexualized advertising be more effective if communicated in a way that does not offend feminist beliefs and social movements like #MeToo?
Preliminary Secondary Research
Introduction to the Topic
Brands have been using sex to advertise and promote their products and services for years, but the question of whether it still works or has ever worked still stands. As social movements like #MeToo gain momentum, companies take a more significant risk now than ever before. They must be careful about how they portray and contextualize sexual imagery and innuendos in their advertising and public relations materials. While attempting to differentiate themselves from competitors, brands must be careful to use sex in a way that does not objectify women or insult current social norms around body positivity, feminism, and movements like #MeToo.
Preliminary Literature Review
Sexualization in Advertising and Public Relations
Brands commonly use sexually-oriented advertising to promote themselves and sell their products and services. More often than not, the sexually appealing part of the advertisement does not pertain to the product or service being sold. However, according to David Ogilvy in his book Ogilvy on Advertising, sex only sells when relevant to the subject being sold (Kalb, 2013). In recent years, the term "sex sells" has been challenged for how it objectifies women and contradicts current social norms around feminism, body positivity, and movements like #MeToo. Literature commonly defines sexualization in advertising to be that which depicts models "in a provocative pose and revealing a substantial extent of nudity" (Hatton & Trautner, 2011). More specifically, an analysis in 2010 found that the overarching characteristics of sexualized advertisements include the physical features of the models, like their clothing, physique, and attractiveness, the model's behavior and movement, the intimacy between the models, and contextual features like camera effects (Reicher & Ramirez, 2000).
Ethics in Advertising and Public Relations
The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) Code of Ethics presents the core values of the public relations profession. It is designed to guide professionals as they carry out their ethical duties, driving their behaviors and decision-making processes (PRSA, n.d.). Pertaining to the use of sex to sell, the role of ethics is to establish a line between what is and is not acceptable in the eyes of consumers and the general public. Over the years, people's views of what is and is not right have changed drastically, especially with the creation of movements like #MeToo, among others.
According to a 2014 Gallup poll rating, the "honesty and ethical standards" of people in various fields found advertisers toward the bottom of the list, above only car salespeople and members of Congress. (Hagenbuch, 2015). Today more than ever before, public relations and advertising professionals must strictly adhere to moral and ethical standards when developing materials to ensure no line is crossed and no public's are accidentally offended or harmed in any way. Although some sexualized advertisements are effective in accomplishing their marketing goals, others fail due to the absence of conversations surrounding ethical marketing practices. Moving forward, brands who act ethically and show their utmost respect and support for consumers' social concerns and movements — with action — will be most successful.
Sexualization and Mental Health
Furthermore, the sexual objectification of women contributes to mental health problems, including eating disorders, depression, anxiety, and sexual dissatisfaction (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). While objectification theory postulates that sexual objectification occurs only to women, men are increasingly sexualized and hyper-muscularized in advertising, public relations, and the media. For example, similar to women comparing themselves to stick-thin models, a study found that advertisements portraying male models as "the muscular ideal" decreased male consumers' level of body positivity while those showing the average man had no effect. (Lorenzen, Grieve & Thomas, 2004).
Selling Sex Then & Now
Like the topic of sex itself, sex in advertising has a long and complicated history. Some embrace it, and some find it to be taboo. Regardless of one's opinion, sex has and always will be present in their daily lives, whether in the bedroom or on a billboard hovering over the highway. For example, a longitudinal analysis of more than four decades of Rolling Stones magazine covers in 2011 found that sexualized images of both men and women have increased; yet, women remain more likely to be "hypersexualized" (Hatton & Trautner, 2011).
However, a recent study, published in Sex Roles and conducted in Italy, challenged previous research and, after four experiments, concluded that sex no longer sells (Gramazio, Cadinu, Guizzo, Carnaghi, 2021). The researchers showed hundreds of men and women two versions of a series of advertisements, one featuring a hypersexualized model and another with the model Photoshopped out. Of the four experiments, three featured female models, and one featured both male and female models — all of whom were white and thin or muscular. After viewing the sexualized advertisements, women's purchase intentions decreased due to the ads making them feel worse about themselves, while men's purchase intentions were largely unaffected by the sexualization of the ads (Gramazio et al., 2021). Further, a study conducted in 2012 by Tom Reichert at the University of Georgia looked at 3,232 full-page ads published in popular magazines over 30 years and found that 23 percent include sexual imagery, and the number of sexualized ads increased from 1983 to 2003 (Sorrow, 2012).
Sexualization of Social Media
Provocatively dressed and posed models, celebrities, and influencers selling products for small to large businesses dominate users' Instagram feeds. The platform is ideal for individuals and brands to promote themselves in their own unique way. Instagram and other social media platforms also create the opportunity for celebrities and individuals alike to express themselves in, at times, almost naked forms. For example, Kylie Jenner and the entire Kardashian-Jenner family are known for using sex to promote their brands and sell their products. Social media has made it easier than ever for brands to reach vast audiences, but perhaps sometimes at a cost. According to a 2020 study, 81 percent of adolescents worldwide use social media, meaning 81 percent of adolescents worldwide have a misinterpreted sense of their physical appearance and their preference for others (Awais, 2020). With an increasing number of sexualized images on social media comes a growing number of self-sexualized individuals with misconstrued ideas of reality.
Selling Sex to Men Versus Women
Previous literature suggests that men and women have different perceptions towards sexualized advertisements and public relations materials, with women having stronger negative emotions than their male counterparts. A recent study that included only women viewers who were shown a series of advertisements found that sexual appeals did not affect the participant's ability to recall the brand names. This suggests that using sexual materials in advertising and public relations might increase consumer memory of the advertisement at the expense of their memory of the brand (Lawrence, 2021).
Another study confirmed this, with almost half of its male participants saying they liked sex-related campaigns when exposed to sexual advertisements. Still, less than 10 percent could recall the brands being advertised compared to almost 20 percent for non hypersexualized advertisements (Sorrow, 2012). Therefore, while sexual images and innuendos might capture a male audience's attention in a different way than women's, it is still likely that the images and innuendos are all they will remember — not the brand itself.
Exploring The Realities of Using Sex to Sell
Although studies have proven that people are more likely to remember advertising and public relations materials containing sexual content, that does not mean they are more likely to act on their memory and make a purchase. Memory does not predict purchase behavior, and it is possible that the consumers could remember the advertisement or other promotional material for negative reasons (Hagenbuch, 2015). According to Jef Richards, an advertising professor at the University of Texas, Austin, “sex sells, but only if you’re selling sex” or something that works well with it (Sorrow, 2012). Brands most likely to employ “erotic connotations” and use sexual imagery are those in the sectors of health and hygiene, clothing, travel, alcohol, entertainment, drugs and medicine, and beauty (Sorrow, 2012). Brands that succeed at selling sex are those selling low-risk products or services typically purchased with little thought. Selling sex rarely works for brands unrelated to the subject who employ it in a manner that typically backfires (Kalb, 2013).
Primary Research Plan
Methods of Primary Research Chosen
Survey
Focus Group
Methods of Primary Research Chosen and Rationale
Survey — A survey will be conducted to collect primary, quantitative data concerning the use of sex to sell products and promote brands. The survey will be distributed among a sample of the general population to test the hypothesis that brands that create sexualized advertisements and public relations materials that do not discount consumers’ current social norms can be both effective and successful. In addition, the survey will reveal any gender and generational differences about how audiences perceive sexual images and innuendos in advertising and public relations materials because of the large sample size and generalizability to a larger population and demographic.
Focus Groups — Three focus groups will be conducted to collect primary, qualitative data concerning people's attitudes towards sexualized advertising and public relations. Focus groups are advantageous because they allow for in-depth and complex conversations that reveal more profound insights into an individual's attitudes and beliefs. Focus groups also allow for a better understanding of the individuals themselves, including how they behave and what motivates them. The purpose of the focus groups is to better understand people's knowledge of and opinion towards sexualized advertising, with questions being asked like, "What does the word objectification mean to you?" and “What companies come to mind when you think about sexualized advertising and public relations?” Focus group participants will also be shown a series of advertisements — some hypersexualized and some not — and then asked for their opinions of each. Focus groups will allow individuals to openly express their thoughts, opinions, and ideas in their own words concerning how brands can use sexualized advertising and public relations in a way that is effective, yet does not offend feminist beliefs and social norms and movements. The insights gained from these focus groups will aid in the overall understanding of how effective or ineffective selling sex for profit is since the emergence of the #MeToo movement.
Target Audience Selection
The target audience for the research study is the general population, and more specifically those in Generation Z, Millennials, Generation X, Baby Boomers, and The Silent Generation who live in the United States. The target audience is the same for the survey and both focus groups. The insights collected will be generalizable to and represent the more significant population by researching a general sample, capable of enhancing the researcher’s understanding of the topic. Further, by sampling a general population, valuable insights into generational differences will become apparent.
Target Audience Data Collection Process
Survey —Survey data will be collected anonymously through Qualtrics, an online survey tool that allows one to build, distribute, and analyze surveys and responses. To best approximate a random sample, the survey will be sent to groups that will make up roughly a general sample. To reach a large sample size, the survey link will be distributed on social media networks, including Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and Instagram. The survey link will be sent to family members, friends, classmates and colleagues — who will be asked to pass it on to others in their networks. The survey link will also be distributed electronically via email to the New York University community and beyond. The survey link will be distributed via text message as well. Additionally, flyers with a QR code linking to the survey will be posted throughout Manhattan, New York.
Focus Group — The focus groups will be conducted via Zoom, and if possible, in person. The data (participants' comments, ideas, concerns, etc.) will be collected and recorded via notetaking by the researcher’s assistant, to later be analyzed using a system of open coding to identify small, isolated comments throughout the discussion, as well as prevalent themes and attitudes. The data collected will remain confidential and anonymous. Similar to the survey, focus group participants will be contacted using social media networks, email and text messaging.
Primary Limitations of the Research
Survey — While there are many advantages to survey research, disadvantages and limitations exist as well. When conducting quantitative research, one runs the risk of losing some of the depth and complexity that qualitative research offers due to the close-ended nature of the answers and the inability to put them in the participant's own words. For example, it will not be possible to obtain participants' in-depth ideas and opinions towards sexualized advertising using survey research. Further, while ultimately aiming for a randomized sample, it is unlikely that this will ultimately be the case due to the nature of distribution via social media networks and personal connections. A substantial and similar amount of data must be collected from each generational group; otherwise, the data collected could become skewed. As a graduate student, it is likely that more data will be collected from those in Generation Z and Millennials because of the ease of access, which will not present the most relatable and generalizable insights. There also exists the possibility for non-sampling errors, like question bias and question error, throughout the survey research process.
Focus Groups — Limitations are present when conducting focus group research, mainly because they are not generalizable to the larger population. Three focus groups of 10 or fewer participants are deemed a small sample size and cannot represent the population as a whole. Further, the results of focus groups rely heavily on the researcher's narrative, which presents the possibility for bias — particularly in the way the questions are phrased and asked. Concerning sexualized advertising and public relations, it will be difficult to format and phrase the questions in a way that is not leading or subjective due to word choice. There is also the possibility that participants will not be honest in their responses due to the nature of the topic — selling sex — and fear of embarrassment.
Preliminary Research Instruments
Survey Questions
Thank you for agreeing to take this survey concerning the use of sex to sell products and promote brands. This research study aims to understand the effectiveness of reaching audiences using sexualized advertising and public relations in the era of #MeToo. I am conducting this survey as part of my Master’s degree work at New York University’s School of Professional Studies. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to answer 22 open and closed-ended questions. The survey will take approximately five minutes to complete, and your responses will be kept confidential. Therefore, you may skip any questions or skip to the end of the survey at any time. If you have any questions or concerns about this study, do not hesitate to contact Elodi Bodamer directly at eb3981@nyu.edu.
In your opinion, how true is the statement “sex sells”? (1 being not true at all and 5 being very true)
1-5 Scale
Has your opinion of brands that use sex appeal to sell their products and services changed since the emergence of the #MeToo movement?
Yes
No
Is sexualized advertising effective?
Yes
No
Is it ethical to use sexual imagery and innuendos for profit in advertising and public relations?
Yes
No
Is using sexual imagery and innuendos for profit in advertising and public relations sexist?
Yes
No
Do you believe there is a “right” way to use sex in advertising and public relations?
Yes
No
How often do you see sexualized advertising and/or public relations materials in your everyday life?
Never
Sometimes
A moderate amount
A lot
A great deal
If you were working at an advertising agency, how likely would you be to support the creation of an advertisement that uses sex to sell the product?
Very likely
Likely
Neither likely nor unlikely
Unlikely
Very Unlikely
How does the use of sex appeal in advertising and public relations affect your purchase intentions?
Positively
Negatively
No Affect
How does the use of sex appeal in advertising and public relations affect your view of the brand?
Positively
Negatively
No Affect
What do you consider acceptable when it comes to sexualized advertising and public relations? (Select all that apply)
Partial Nudity
Full Nudity
Sexual Innuendos
Provocative Dress
Taboo Connotations
Provocative Pose/Movement
Other, please specify: ________________________
What companies come to mind when you think about sexualized advertising and public relations? (Select all that apply)
Dove
Victoria’s Secret
Coca-Cola
Budweiser
Abercrombie & Fitch
PETA
Tom Ford
AXE
KKW Fragrance
Carl’s Junior
Dolce & Gabbana
Old Spice
None
Other, please specify: ___________
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: “Female nudity is acceptable in advertising and promotional materials.”
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: “Male nudity is acceptable in advertising and promotional materials.”
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Does this advertisement make you more or less inclined to drink Budweiser over alternative beer brands?
More Inclined
Neutral
Less Inclined
Additional Question: Why? _____________
Does this advertisement make you more or less inclined to purchase Dove products over its competitors?
More Inclined
Neutral
Less Inclined
Additional Question: Why? _____________
Which of the following advertisements makes you most inclined to purchase Coca-Cola products?
Why? ______________ b. Why? ______________ c. Why? ______________
Which Dolce & Gabbana advertisement do you prefer?
Why? _____________________ b. Why? _____________________
What gender do you identify as?
Male
Female
____________
Prefer not to answer
What is your age?
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65-74
75 years or older
Are you married?
Yes
No
Prefer not to say
Are you a parent?
Yes
No
Prefer not to say
Focus Group Guide
You are invited to participate in a focus group concerning the use of sex to sell products and promote brands. This research aims to understand the effectiveness of reaching audiences using sexualized advertising and public relations in the era of #MeToo. The information learned in this focus group will be used for my Capstone, part of the required curriculum for New York University’s Public Relations & Corporate Communication program at the School of Professional Studies. Participation in this study is voluntary. If you agree to participate, you will be placed in a group of 10 individuals and asked a series of questions for discussion. Your responses are voluntary and will be kept confidential. If you have any questions or concerns about this study, please contact Elodi Bodamer directly at eb3981@nyu.edu.
Between these three Coca-Cola advertisements, which do you find most appealing? Which, if any, makes you more inclined to purchase Coca-Cola? Why?
Between these two Kraft advertisements, which do you find more appealing? Which, if either, makes you more inclined to purchase Kraft Macaroni & Cheese? Why?
Between these two Budweiser advertisements, which do you find more appealing? Which, if either, makes you more inclined to purchase Budweiser beer? Wh?
Between these two Dove advertisements, which do you find more appealing? Which, if either, makes you more inclined to purchase Dove products? Why?
When I say “sex appeal,” what comes to mind?
Does sex sell? Please elaborate on why or why not.
Have you ever been exposed to sexual advertising? If so, are there any ads that you found particularly memorable?
Has your opinion of brands that use sex appeal to sell their products and services changed since the emergence of the #MeToo movement? Why or why not?
How would you define the “appropriate” versus “inappropriate” use of sex in advertising? Do you think there’s a line between the two, and does it make a difference what audience is likely to see the ad?
What, if any, brands come to mind when you think about sexualized advertising and public relations?
Between these two Burger King advertisements, which do you find more appealing? Which, if either, makes you more inclined to visit Burger King? Why
Between these two Dolce & Gabbana advertisements, which do you find most appealing? Which, if any, makes you more inclined to purchase Dolce & Gabbana? Why?
Anticipated Findings and Contributions to the Field
The anticipated findings are that the primary research will support the hypothesis that traditional sexualized advertising that objectifies or stereotypes women no longer sells, but brands that create sexualized advertising and public relations materials that do not offend or discount consumers’ current social norms around body positivity, feminism, and movements like #MeToo can be successful when using sex to sell.
There stands an opportunity to challenge the notion that using sex to sell products and services or promote and garner support for causes is always morally and ethically wrong. When it comes to objectification, context is everything. According to Nussbaum, objectification is negative "when it occurs in a context where equality, respect, and consent are absent" and positive when compatible with the three (Nussbaum, 1995, p. 271). Therefore, there does, in fact, stand an opportunity for positive objectification in the media. Public relations and advertising professionals who demonstrate equality, respect, and consent in their sexualized advertisements will be more successful than those who do not. And perhaps advertisements that do not objectify, but rather embrace these characteristics and current social norms around body positivity, feminism, and movements like #MeToo will be the most successful of all.
Comments